The first factor driving globalisation in education is technological advancements, particularly in information technology and communications. Spring (2014) contends that advancements in technology have driven the utilization of information technology, e-learning, and communications globally. It also triggers the growth of the internet, satellite systems and mobile phone, together with fixed and mobile data services around the world (Chaudhary, 2016; Deeks, 2021; Quainoo, 2022). They also emphasize that these advancements play a pivotal role in fostering global connectivity among learners, transcending geographical limitations and promoting a diverse, interconnected learning environment. 

The advancements of technology trigger the advent of online learning platform and digital resources that revolutionize education. Sundari and Utomo (2019) point out that those advancements transform traditional textbook into digital books enhanced with interactive media, enabling students to learn anytime and anywhere. These innovations have changed the learning process and the scope of material covered. Sukmayadi and Yahya (2020) explain that students could broaden their learning by accessing various online information sources, and teachers should not depend solely on a single source for instructional purposes. In addition, they also note that the internet has revolutionized education, offering numerous ways to enhance its quality by providing access to a wealth of information, educational resources, and knowledge, thereby expanding learning opportunities both inside and outside the classroom in the digital era. 

The second factor triggering globalisation in education is economic globalisation. Deeks (2021) argues that the globalisation of the world economy is propelled not only by the increasingly affordable facilitation of transportation for both travelers and cargo but also by heightened convenience and decreased global communications expenses. These factors affect the internationalization of education. The author also argues that the global economic trend influences educational funding because many governments reduced support for universities and required students to pay more for education. Triwiyanto et al. (2019) contends that the influence of economically powerful nations, driven by international interests and institutions to maximize profits, leads to the exploitation of resources. It can be said that economic globalisation shapes education internationally and influences funding dynamics as authorities respond to evolving economic trends. 

The third factor causing the globalisation of education is multiculturalism. Spring (2014) points out that people moving around the world have influenced national and local school policies and practices related to multiculturalism. According to Deeks (2021), the dynamic influence of global movement significantly shapes national and local school policies, fostering a rich environment of multiculturalism in education. Chaudhary (2016) contends that cultural exchanges play a pivotal role in shaping global education, creating an inclusive educational landscape where students from a variety of cultural heritages can celebrate diversity and foster mutual comprehension. This interaction not only enriches the educational experience but also prepares individuals to thrive in a globalised world by fostering cultural competence and open-mindedness. As Quainoo (2022) states, educational systems are pressured to produce globally competitive individuals who can secure positions and enhance the state’s global competitiveness. 

Multiculturalism plays a pivotal role in shaping globalization in educations. Heriansyah (2014) highlights the ramifications of internationalization and globalization on the educational context are particularly evident in the importance assigned to the cultural dimension. The author also says that the concept of culture is considered something formed through daily interactions, manifested in the interaction between small social groups and other cultural groups in society. He contends that the emergence of transcultural practices within cultural globalisation is not only facilitated by global media and information technology but also through individuals’ mobility. The author also notes that, it can be concluded that the effect of culture in the international and global educational environment is observed through various social interactions between students from different linguistic, cultural, and educational backgrounds. These interactions bring together distinct features like sociocultural and linguistic skills as students adapt to their diverse environments. 

Furthermore, multiculturalism advocates for equal rights and opportunities in education. A case study conducted by Rissanen et al. (2016) state that as acknowledgment of religious identities and positive connections between minority students and teachers is recognized as crucial for students’ self-esteem, it also contributes to enhanced academic performance. They also argue that fostering the development and exploration of their varied students and advocating for equal educational opportunities are crucial aspects. This commitment to equality not only fosters a sense of belonging but also equips students with the understanding needed to navigate a globalised world, emphasizing the importance of fairness and respect for diverse voices in the educational landscape. 

Those three primary factors significantly impact on Indonesia’s higher education system. This is evident from the trend of globalisation in Indonesian universities. The research of Internationalization in higher education conducted by Rosyidah, Matin & Rosyidi (2020) shows that the initiation and facilitation of programs by the Indonesian government to support internationalization have commenced. The researchers unveil four effective strategies on how universities can build international trust. They note that the first strategy is aspiring for global recognition by having a strong vision to globally recognized. The second strategy, as stated by the researchers, is promoting the university in relation to its programs and activities, highlighting its excellence and distinctive qualities by publicizing the university through engagement with both domestic and foreign institutions, as well as individuals participating in international programs and activities. They also state that the third strategy involves establishing synergistic partnerships with foreign universities and institutions through the facilitation of interpersonal interaction, forming international squad, and engaging in worldwide occasions. The last strategy, pointed out by the researchers, is granting scholarships for international students, whether partial or full, aims to increase inbound student numbers, enhancing university awareness and promoting it in their communities. 

Globalisation in education drives the increasing number of international students, significantly impacts Indonesia’s education landscape, facilitated by diverse sponsorships. British Council (2018) reports that there has been an increase in Indonesia’s Gross Enrolment Ratio from 17% in 2005 to 31% in 2017. Setiawan (2020) shows that the number of public universities increased from 77 in 1999 to 176 in 2015, while there was a significant surge in the count of private universities from 1449 in 1999 to 3742 in 2015. In addition, Heriansyah (2014) states that the ramifications of internationalization and globalisation have unveiled myriad possibilities for Indonesian students and educators to pursue overseas education, a prospect non-existent in the past. The researcher also describes that many obtain full scholarships from sponsors like Fulbright, ADS, APS, Erasmus, Chevening, and others in Europe and the Middle East, facilitating their higher education abroad. Department of Commerce, United States of America (2022) report that during the 2021-2022 academic year, 8,003 Indonesian students studied in the U.S., marking a 6.9% increase from the previous year, with Indonesia ranking as the twenty-first leading origin for international students in the U.S. 
          Globalisation in education also drives the improvement of educators’ quality and the quality of education itself. According to Suranto et al. (2023), the globalisation of education improves educators by utilizing easy access to educational information to stay updated on global learning trends and seek references from other countries. Additionally, they also add that in the context of enhancing education quality, the current era of globalisation not only improves learning management but also supports better utilization of learning environments, suitable facilities, infrastructure, and thorough learning evaluations.  

Characteristics of globalisation in education, which affect higher education system, include the presence of ranking standards and the establishment of partnership globally. In terms of ranking standard, Muhayat (2018) notes that Indonesia implements accreditation, overseen by the National Accreditation Board of Higher Education (BAN PT), a government-established body, which aims to ensure their alignment with national education standards and promoting international branding and ranking. Regarding the characteristic of global partnership, the Australian Government, Department of Education (2016) notes that several Australian institutions have collaborated with Indonesia’s leading universities for research in many areas. The report also notes that, in 2014, Monash University, the University of Melbourne, the Australian National University, and the University of Sydney collaborated with Indonesia’s top seven research universities to create the Australia-Indonesia Centre.  

Indonesia mandates K-12 education system, a 12-year compulsory education, encompassing six years at the elementary level and three each at the junior and high school levels. Globalisation in education has affected the curriculum, teaching methods and assessment in this education system. Zidan and Qamariah (2023) point out that Indonesia applies the Merdeka Curriculum, which uses the integration of digital tools and platforms providing students with diverse resources and international connections, fostering a global perspective and digital literacy skills. The authors also note that the Curriculum Merdeka emphasizes the use of technology to enhance learning, promoting a progressive, student-centered approach to prepare students for the challenges of the 21st century. The rising interest in online education is fueling the expansion of Indonesia’s prominent EdTech platforms. The favored EdTech products provide learning management systems that facilitate teacher-student collaboration and interactive classroom tools for conducting live teaching sessions, such as G-Suite for Education, Microsoft for Education, Zoom, Google Classroom, Edmodo, Schoology, Moodle, Quipper and Ruangguru. (The Australian Government’s Development of Education, 2023; Sundari & Utomo, 2022). All the changes that are happening indicate Indonesia’s seriousness in developing superior and globally competitive education. 

In K-12 education system, globalisation in education has changed student’s assessment. According to Zidan and Qamariah (2023), Curriculum Merdeka employs formative assessments which reflects the students’ proficiency level, with the primary goal being the enhancement of Pancasila (five principle of Indonesia) aptitude. Suyanto (2017) explain that assessment encompasses four dimensions (spiritual, social, knowledge, and skills) and employs seven assessment techniques (tests, observation, portfolio, project, product, peer assessment, and self-assessment) In Indonesian schools. It is evident that the assessment addresses all aspects of students’ lives holistically. 

In conclusion, the globalisation of education is significantly driven by technological advancements, economic globalisation, and multiculturalism. These factors exert considerable influence on Indonesia’s higher education sector, leading to the implementation of internationalization policies, an increase in number of international students through various scholarship opportunities, and advancements in educator quality and educational standards. Simultaneously, the K-12 education systems undergo transformative shifts in curriculum, teaching methodologies, and assessment approaches in response to these global forces. Specifically, the utilization of technology for improved learning is underscored by the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in Indonesia’s K-12 education system. Preparedness for the the challenges of 21^st century is facilitated through this forward-looking, student-centered methodology, characterized by the application of formative assessments that mirror individual proficiency levels. These innovative curriculum changes are Indonesia’s response to the globalising educational landscape and they also reflect the noble values and national character of the Indonesian people. In the future, by adapting to and implementing changes brought by globalisation in education, it is predicted that the education system in Indonesia will become increasingly outstanding, innovative, transformative and world-class. There will be a surge in active participation from Indonesian students and alumni on the global stage, equipped with critical thinking skill to make substantial contributions in addressing real-world issues. Their global engagement is expected to positively impact human well-being and create a better world.